Convolutional Codes Simulation Using Matlab Computer Science Essay

Convolutional Codes Simulation Using Matlab Computer Science Essay Abstract: In order to reduce the effects of random and burst errors in transmitted signal it is necessary to use error-control coding. We researched some possibilities of such coding using the MATLAB Communications Toolbox. There are two types of codes available Linear Block Codes and Convolutional Codes. In block coding the coding algorithm transforms each piece (block) of information into a code word part of which is a generated structured redundancy. Convolutional code uses an extra parameter (memory). This puts an extra constraint on the code. Convolutional codes operate on serial data, one or a few bits at a time. This paper describes basic aspects of Convolutional codes and illustrates Matlab encoding and decoding implementations. Convolutional codes are often used to improve the performance of radio and satellite links. Key words: Convolutional codes, error-control coding, radio and satellite links. 1. Introduction Convolutional codes are commonly specified by three parameters (n,k,m): n = number of output bits; k = number of input bits; m = number of memory registers. The quantity k/n called the code rate, is a measure of the efficiency of the code. Commonly k and n parameters range from 1 to 8, m from 2 to 10 and the code rate from 1/8 to 7/8 except for deep space applications where code rates as low as 1/100 or even longer have been employed. Often the manufacturers of convolutional code chips specify [1] the code by parameters (n,k,L), The quantity L is called the constraint length of the code and is defined by Constraint Length, L = k (m-1). The constraint length L represents the number of bits in the encoder memory that affect the generation of the n output bits. The constraint length L is also referred to by the capital letter K, which can be confusing with the lower case k, which represents the number of input bits. In some books K is defined as equal to product the of k and m. Often in commercial spec, the codes are specified by (r, K), where r = the code rate k/n and K is the constraint length. The constraint length K however is equal to L 1, as defined in this paper. Even though a convolutional coder accepts a fixed number of message symbols and produces a fixed number of code symbols, its computations depend not only on the current set of input symbols but on some of the previous input symbols. In general, a rate R=k/n, k  £ n, convolutional encoder input (information sequence) is a sequence of binary k-tuples, u = ..,u-1, u0, u1, u2,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, where . The output (code sequence) is a sequence of binary n-tuples, v = ..,v-1, v0, v1, v2,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, where . The sequences must start at a finite (positive or negative) time and may or may not end. The relation between the information sequences and the code sequences is determined by the equation v = uG , where is the semi-infinite generator matrix, and where the sub-matrices G i , 0 £ i £ m, are binary kXn matrices. The arithmetic in v = uG is carried out over the binary field, F 2 , and the parts left blank in the generator matrix G are assumed to be filled in with zeros. The right hand side of v= uG defines a discrete-time convolution between u and , hence, the name convolutional codes [2]. As in many other situations where convolutions appear it is convenient to express the sequences in some sort of transform. In information theory and coding theory [3], [4] it is common to use the delay operator D, the D-transform. The information and code sequences becomes and They are related through the equation , where is the generator matrix. The set of polynomial matrices is a special case of the rational generator matrices. Hence, instead of having finite impulse response in the encoder, as for the polynomial case, we can allow periodically repeating infinite impulse responses. To make the formal definitions for this case it is easier to start in the D-domain. Let F 2((D)) denote the field of binary Laurent series. The element contains at most finitely many negative powers of D. similarly, let F 2[D] denote the ring of binary polynomials. A polynomial contains no negative powers of D and only finitely many positive. Given a pair of polynomials x(D), y(D)Æ’Å ½ F 2[D], where y(D) ¹0, we can obtain the element x(D)/y(D)Æ’Å ½ F 2((D)) by long division. All non-zero ratios x(D)/y(D) are invertible, so they form the field of binary rational functions, F 2(D), which is a sub-field of F 2((D)). A rate R = k/n (binary) convolutional transducer over the field of rational functions F 2(D) is a linear mapping which can be represented as v(D)=u(D)G(D), where G(D) is a k X n transfer function matrix of rank k with entries in F 2(D) and v(D) is called the code sequence corresponding to the information sequence u(D). A rate R = k/n convolutional code C over F 2 is the image set of a rate R = k/n convolutional transducer. We will only consider realizable (causal) transfer function matrices, which we call generator matrices. A transfer function matrix of a convolutional code is called a generator matrix if it is realizable (causal). It follows from the definitions that a rate R = k/n convolutional code C with the k X n generator matrix G(D) is the row space of G(D) over F((D)). Hence, it is the set of all code sequences generated by the convolutional generator matrix, G(D). A rate R = k/n convolutional encoder of a convolutional code with rate R = k/n generator matrix G(D) over F 2(D) is a realization by linear sequential circuits of G(D). 2. Convolutional encoder simulation The Convolutional Encoder block encodes a sequence of binary input vectors to produce a sequence of binary output vectors. This block can process multiple symbols at a time. If the encoder takes k input bit streams (that is, can receive 2k possible input symbols), then this blocks input vector length is L*k for some positive integer L. Similarly, if the encoder produces n output bit streams (that is, can produce 2n possible output symbols), then this blocks output vector length is L*n. The input can be a sample-based vector with L  =  1, or a frame-based column vector with any positive integer for L. For a variable in the MATLAB workspace [5], [6] that contains the trellis structure, we put its name as the Trellis structure parameter. This way is preferable because it causes Simulink [5] to spend less time updating the diagram at the beginning of each simulation, compared to the usage in the next bulleted item. For specify the encoder using its constraint length, generator polyno mials, and possibly feedback connection polynomials, we used a poly2trellis command within the Trellis structure field. For example, for an encoder with a constraint length of 7, code generator polynomials of 171 and 133 (in octal numbers), and a feedback connection of 171 (in octal), we have used the Trellis structure parameter to poly2trellis(7,[171 133],171). The encoder registers begin in the all-zeros state. We configured the encoder so that it resets its registers to the all-zeros state during the course of the simulation: The value None indicates that the encoder never resets; The value On each frame indicates that the encoder resets at the beginning of each frame, before processing the next frame of input data; The value On nonzero Rst input causes the block to have a second input port, labeled Rst. The signal at the Rst port is a scalar signal. When it is nonzero, the encoder resets before processing the data at the first input port. 3. Convolutional decoder simulation 3.1. Viterbi Decoder The Viterbi Decoder block [7], [1] decodes input symbols to produce binary output symbols. This block can process several symbols at a time for faster performance. If the convolutional code uses an alphabet of 2n possible symbols, then this blocks input vector length is L*n for some positive integer L. Similarly, if the decoded data uses an alphabet of 2k possible output symbols, then this blocks output vector length is L*k. The integer L is the number of frames that the block processes in each step. The input can be either a sample-based vector with L  =  1, or a frame-based column vector with any positive integer for L. The entries of the input vector are either bipolar, binary, or integer data, depending on the Decision type parameter: Unquantized Real numbers; Hard Decision 0, 1; Soft Decision Integers between 0 and 2k-1, where k is the Number of soft decision bits parameter, with 0 for most confident decision for logical zero and 2k-1, most confident decision for logical one. Other values represent less confident decisions. If the input signal is frame-based, then the block has three possible methods for transitioning between successive frames. The Operation mode parameter controls which method the block uses: In Continuous mode, the block saves its internal state metric at the end of each frame, for use with the next frame. Each traceback path is treated independently. In Truncated mode, the block treats each frame independently. The traceback path starts at the state with the best metric and always ends in the all-zeros state. This mode is appropriate when the corresponding Convolutional Encoder block has its Reset parameter set to On each frame. In Terminated mode, the block treats each frame independently, and the traceback path always starts and ends in the all-zeros state. This mode is appropriate when the uncoded message signal (that is, the input to the corresponding Convolutional Encoder block) has enough zeros at the end of each frame to fill all memory registers of the encoder. If the encoder has k input streams and constraint length vector constr (using the polynomial description), then enough means k*max(constr-1). In the special case when the frame-based input signal contains only one symbol, the Continuous mode is most appropriate. The Traceback depth parameter, D, influences the decoding delay. The decoding delay is the number of zero symbols that precede the first decoded symbol in the output. If the input signal is sample-based, then the decoding delay consists of D zero symbols. If the input signal is frame-based and the Operation mode parameter is set to Continuous, then the decoding delay consists of D zero symbols. If the Operation mode parameter is set to Truncated or Terminated, then there is no output delay and the Traceback depth parameter must be less than or equal to the number of symbols in each frame. If the code rate is 1/2, then a typical Traceback depth value is about five times the constraint length of the code. The reset port is usable only when the Operation mode parameter is set to Continuous. Checking the Reset input check box causes the block to have an additional input port, labeled Rst. When the Rst input is nonzero, the decoder returns to its initial state by configuring its internal memory as follows: Sets the all-zeros state metric to zero; Sets all other state metrics to the maximum value; Sets the traceback memory to zero; Using a reset port on this block is analogous to setting the Reset parameter in the Convolutional Encoder block to On nonzero Rst input. 3.2. APP Decoder The APP Decoder block [8] performs a posteriori probability (APP) decoding of a convolutional code. The input L(u) represents the sequence of log-likelihoods of encoder input bits, while the input L(c) represents the sequence of log-likelihoods of code bits. The outputs L(u) and L(c) are updated versions of these sequences, based on information about the encoder. If the convolutional code uses an alphabet of 2n possible symbols, then this blocks L(c) vectors have length Q*n for some positive integer Q. Similarly, if the decoded data uses an alphabet of 2k possible output symbols, then this blocks L(u) vectors have length Q*k. The integer Q is the number of frames that the block processes in each step. The inputs can be either: Sample-based vectors having the same dimension and orientation, with Q  =  1; Frame-based column vectors with any positive integer for Q. To define the convolutional encoder that produced the coded input, we have used the Trellis structure MATLAB parameter. We tested two ways: The name as the Trellis structure parameter, for a variable in the MATLAB workspace that contains the trellis structure. This way is preferable because it causes Simulink to spend less time updating the diagram at the beginning of each simulation, compared to the usage in the next bulleted item; For specify the encoder using its constraint length, generator polynomials, and possibly feedback connection polynomials, we used a poly2trellis command within the Trellis structure field. For example, for an encoder with a constraint length of 7, code generator polynomials of 171 and 133 (in octal numbers), and a feedback connection of 171 (in octal), we used the Trellis structure parameter to poly2trellis(7,[171 133],171. To indicate how the encoder treats the trellis at the beginning and end of each frame, its necessary to set the Termination method parameter to either Truncated or Terminated. The Truncated option indicates that the encoder resets to the all-zeros state at the beginning of each frame, while the Terminated option indicates that the encoder forces the trellis to end each frame in the all-zeros state. We can control part of the decoding algorithm using the Algorithm parameter. The True APP option implements a posteriori probability. To gain speed, both the Max* and Max options approximate expressions by other quantities. The Max option uses max{ai} as the approximation, while the Max* option uses max{ai} plus a correction term. The Max* option enables the Scaling bits parameter in the mask. This parameter is the number of bits by which the block scales the data it processes internally. We have used this parameter to avoid losing precision during the computations. It is especially appropriate for implementation uses fixed-point components. 4. Conclusions In these work we have constructed and tested in Maple convolutional encoders and decoders of various types, rates, and memories. Convolutional codes are fundamentally different from other classes of codes, in that a continuous sequence of message bits is mapped into a continuous sequence of encoder output bits. It is well-known in the literature and practice that these codes achieve a larger coding gain than that with block coding with the same complexity. The encoder operating at a rate 1/n bits/symbol, may be viewed as a finite-state machine that consists of an M-stage shift register with prescribed connections to n modulo-2 adders, and a multiplexer that serializes the outputs of the adders.

Amadou Ham Pate Ba

Amadou Ham pate Ba (1901-1991), Malian ethnologist, narrator and author, played an important role in introducing the world to African oral heritage, especially the folktales of West Africa. The man known as the â€Å"living Memory of Africa† he liked to say he was â€Å"one of the eldest sons of the century,† was one of the major intellectual literary figures of the 20th century. The saying with which he will always be associated for (his often quoted statement), that â€Å"In Africa when an old man dies, a library has burned down† has become so famous that it is sometimes used as an African proverb.He was commenting on the loss of African oral heritage, in praise of both old age and oral tradition, which contributes to the historical components of humanities memory. â€Å"The folktale is a key source of oral tradition, as are other forms of narrative and rituals that are considered essential components of cultural anthropology and ethnology†. (folkculture . org) There is a certain characteristic and significance of indigenous knowledge, especially in Africa. Indigenous knowledge has been defined as the local knowledge. Knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society.The expressions traditional local and indigenous knowledge, are used in the literature inter-changeably, is learned through repetition which aids in its retention and reinforcement. Agricultural or desert-based societies slowly created communities that were mostly self- contained and based on self-help. Their approach to problem solving was through ambulated individual or communal experiences and knowledge derived from trial and error. This aggregated validated knowledge improved and increases in time but remained mostly unrecorded. Even in the present information age, agricultural and desert-based communities, have remained practically cut off, thus they have been out of the mere necessity and for the sake of their survival, depending on and making use of their tr aditional unrecorded knowledge†. (Anwar, 1998) Amadou Ba feared that a lot of it is being lost due to rapid urbanization and continuous attrition in the older population. â€Å"Indigenous knowledge is predominantly tacit and embedded in practices and experiences and exchanged within the community through oral communication and demonstration.Recording and disseminating it across communities is not easy† (Anwar. 2005). It’s sometimes fragmented. It does not exist in its totality either in one place or one individual. It is distribution is socially differentiated, based on gender and age. â€Å"When discussing language, ethnic groups, cultures (and subcultures), and religions. The key concepts are diversity and complexity. There are conservatively many hundreds of different ethnics groups. Thus, there are many hundreds of distinct languages and cultures.The sheer number of such groups throughout Africa makes this dimension unique to the continent. † (The Oth er World ch. 6 pg. 187) Amadou Ham pate Ba passed away in 1991, leaving the world a library and an extensive archive to protect the wealth of knowledge that he had collected from fire, which he warned about repeatedly. He said â€Å"that part of every speech is lost to fire; chaos can result from tiny sparks just as a match can lead to a fire that destroys an entire village†. (folkculture. rg) What role do oral traditions play in the displacements and/or migrations of communities? Oral tradition: â€Å"the process of handing down information, opinions, belief, and customs by the word of mouth or by example† (Merriam-Webster unabridged 7th Ed). A transmission of knowledge and institutions through successive generations without written instruction. Thus an inherited principle, standard, or practice serving as the established guide of an individual or group. In comparing different cultures we tend to evaluate the custom of others in light of our own beliefs and values.Mem bers of all cultures assume that their own design for living is the best and only correct way. The belief that one’s own culture is the only true and good way, as well as the tendency to judge other cultures by those standard, is call Ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism serves several important functions for individuals and groups. Certainly about the rightness of one’s beliefs and behaviors reinforces the tendency to confirm and to defend one’s society. Ethnocentrism becomes dysfunctional when beliefs in one’s superiority lead to hostility and conflict. More important, oral traditions can provide a rich history predating the written word. † (The other world ch6 pg. 189) In traditional soufies people tend to regard the way things have always been done as sacred, which stems from the beliefs and practices passed down from generation to generation. Account of first European contacts with black Africa are a study in Ethnocentrism the letters and journals of 1 5th and 16th century explorers, merchants, and missioners, overflowed with lurid descriptions of cannibalism, incest and unbridled lust. Since the Africans did not practice Christianity they were labeled ‘heathens’; since their laws were incomprehensible to the European, they were said to be ‘LAWLESS’; and since their marriage and family practices differed from those prevalent in Europe they were judged to be ‘savages’ and ‘barbarians’. (George 1968) â€Å"Africa was artificially divided to suit the objectives of the colonial governments. Preexisting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural until were ignored. Throughout Africa, closely knit people speaking the same language were suddenly separated†. The other world Ch6 pg. 190) As evident in the class text book (see enclosed references) European colonization of the coast of Africa in 1884 (see fig 6. 2) undoubtedly hasten the displacement and migration of the indigenous people furt her inland toward the desert (see fig 6. 1) so they could control; the rich fertile land. By 1895 (see fig 6. 3) it only got worse. Even today the African map reflects the extraction goals of the imperial powers. ‘’ Moreover, foreigners exploited the natural habit in many parts of the region.For instance, the colonial powers instituted cash crops and export of livestock, which in turn meant widespread clearing of the land and sometimes depletion of the soil. Similarly, Europeans carving up the continent created or heightened local rivalries, which resulted in conflicts that also affected the landscape (ch6 p. 201) Carried to an extreme, ethnocentrism is destructive as evidence by the Nazis in Germany who believed in absolute superiority of the white Aryan race and culture.The result was the displacement and death of millions of people who didn’t fit that category mostly Jews. In American history, each different ethnic, religious, or racial group was thought to be inferior to white Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASP) and therefore deserve less than humane treatment. â€Å"Ethnic divisions are a powerful force today. Ongoing struggles in such diverse states as Angola, Burundi, Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya,Liberia Mauritanian, Nigeria, Ruanda and Sierra Leon may be explained in past by deep-seated ethnic division

Special Education At The Collegiate Level - 2711 Words

When talking about special education, a majority of people will automatically assume the discussion revolves around a PK-12 student. Few people are aware of how many students with disabilities attend college and the accommodations that are required to support them. From physical challenges to learning difficulties, individuals with disabilities represent a population of college students that has tripled, and by some estimates, quadrupled over the past twenty-five years (Olney, Kennedy, Brockelman, Newsom, 2004; Palombi, 2000). There are 6,500 postsecondary institutions in the country and approximately 14 million undergraduate students and 2 million graduate students. (Dutta, Schiro-Geist, Kundu, 2009) Of these students,†¦show more content†¦(Dell, 2004) These may include results of testing and information on accommodations that have been used in school. The transition meeting should clearly outline what modifications are needed and appropriate. When the student arrives at college, it is important to meet with the Disabilities Department and create a success plan. A collaborative success plan should be developed by the Disabilities Manager and the student. In some instances, the college professor may be involved. In the Group presentation that looked at Albert from The Verger and put him into a college environment, we looked at the laws protecting post secondary students. Colleges are under no obligation to accept students they believe cannot be successful. However, many colleges have provided a supportive, nurturing environment that allows students with disabilities to flourish. Community colleges offer programs for remediation to help students become secure in the basics to enable them to move on to 4 year colleges. Some colleges, such as Landmark College in Vermont and Gallaudet University in Washington DC have programs for students with specific disabilities. 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(APTS 8, 9; INTASC 1; CEC 1, 9) Assessment Tool Selected * Essay Specific Performance/Task(s)Read MoreWhy College Athletes Should Not Be Paid1301 Words   |  6 PagesHayden White Mrs. Dodson English II Pre-AP 17 November 2015 Why College Athletes Should Not Be Paid What amount of money should college athletes be paid? This has been a controversial question for many years.Some lower level Division One NCAA athletes think that their scholarships do not pay them enough as it is, and instead they want cash rather than the scholarship. These situations have been taken to court and arbitrated in NCAA hearings. The NCAA, or the National College Athletics AssociationRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1398 Words   |  6 Pagesgreat dispute about whether or not athletes at the collegiate level should receive compensation for their hard work. The proposal of payment to student athletes has begun major conversations and arguments nationwide. 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The United States Declaration Of Independence - 1802 Words

innovationsocialstudies222 cameronjohnsonlog outhelp WikiPages Files VIEWEDIT FrontPage Page history last edited by Chris LaValle 2 hours, 47 minutes ago Welcome to Mr. LaValle s Classroom Contact Information Homework Storage Page Today is Friday, May 15, 2015 an A Day. Quote of the Week: Always do your best. What you plant now, you will harvest later. Og Mandino(1923–1996) History Facts of the Day for May 15, 2015: On May 15, 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold becomes the first recorded European to see Cape Cod. And in 1618 Johannes Kepler confirms his previously rejected discovery of the third law of planetary motion (he first discovered it on March 8 but soon rejected the idea after some initial calculations were made). Also, in 1755 Laredo, Texas is established by the Spaniards. And in 1776, during the American Revolution, the Virginia Convention instructs its Continental Congress delegation to propose a resolution of independence from Great Britain, paving the way for the United States Declaration of Independence. Also, in 1793 Diego Marà ­n Aguilera flies a glider for about 360 meters, at a height of 5–6 meters, during one of the first attempted manned flights. And in 1817 the first private mental health hospital in the United States, the Asylum for the Relief of Persons Deprived of the Use of Their Reason (now Friends Hospital) opens in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Also, in 1850 the Bloody Island Massacre takes place in Lake County, California, in which aShow MoreRelatedThe Declaration Of Independence By The United States1106 Words   |  5 PagesThe setting of the Declaration of Independence was the United States. It was declared on July 4, 1776. After the Boston tea party rebellion the United states wanted their independence. 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WhileRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And The United States897 Words   |  4 Pages The Declaration of Independence stated the United States should be established as a country, free from British control, the U.S. Constitution is a set of rules for that nation to follow, and Mark Twain’s As Regards Patriotism examines how these two documents affect the mindset of this country. Groupthink, not a word use in 1900, when Twain penned his essay, but it is a good analogy of what he was discussing. Psychology Today says, â€Å"Groupthink occurs when a group values harmony and coherenceRead MoreThe United States Of The Declaration Of Independence1486 Words   |  6 Pagesthat took the lead on creating one of the first official American documents was the founding fathers. These men signed the Declaration of Independence from England in 1776. They were a group of very strong and independent men who were interested in the future of the country and its ability to stand on its own. 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Stranger with a Camera and The House I Live In - 1432 Words

Documentarians often want to get as close to their subject matter as possible. Some documentarians have an insider perspective which ignites a spark to create a piece that illuminates a specific topic or area of study. There are also documentarians that have no affiliation with said subject matter, but want to explore the topic in question. Finally, there are documentarians that have a foot in both worlds. Insider/outsider is a theory in which a documentarian can be close to a subject, but also possess characteristics or traits that make them distant from the topic in question (Coles, 1998). Such is the case with the directors of both Stranger with a Camera and The House I Live In. Due to their own location, both Eugene Jarecki and Elizabeth Barret exhibit characteristics that make them fall into the insider/outsider roles as directors. Robert Coles defines location by stating, â€Å"We notice what we notice because of who we are† (Coles, 1998, p. 7). 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Report of Influence Leadership on Apple Inc Free Essays

Report of influence leadership on Apple Inc | May 5 2011 | This report shows market review, SWOT and PEST of Apple Inc as well as back ground of Steve Jobs- brilliant CEO. It also criticize and relate to leadership theories in his case. | | Contents Introductions3 Findings4 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Report of Influence Leadership on Apple Inc or any similar topic only for you Order Now Products and services4 2. Market review5 Literature review10 Conclusions15 Recommendations15 References16 Introductions It is obvious to suggest that the success of  a  corporate brand  is based on  many factors  that  impact directly  or indirectly to  delivering the  decision  to build  that success. Human factors, especially  the role of leaderships and  their decision  are  prerequisite  to bring ‘a unique success’  in both  business and  brand reputation. According to Fortune magazine, Apple Inc is â€Å"The Most Admired Company† in the USA in 2010 and becomes a leader in technical rivalry in majority areas such as consumer electronics as well as software products [ (Magazine, 2011) ]. Its success based on creativity and innovation strategies, and a significant advantages which allows the company to occupy the leading positions in the world market is leadership of this Company , specially Steve Jobs- a visionary talents CEO. He has played an important role in the development of the computer company. However, this was also the problem of Apple because of lack of Steve Jobs such as when he got cancer leading to falling down Apple’ stock price in the past. So that, The aim of this report will focus on affection of leadership on Apple and how leadership theories relate in this case. This report also shows market review of Apple Inc and recommends for this company . The report based on secondary research (public information on the internet, journals and literature review from books). Laterally, the research will evaluate the fact and key theories in specific circumstance- Apple Inc and Steve Jobs. Findings 1. Products and services In 1976, Apple was co-founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. The Company specializes designs, manufactures, and markets consumer electronics products – personal computers, portable music players, mobile phones – as well as related software, services, and peripherals. Apple sells its products worldwide and provides support through its website . Additionally, Apple distributes digital entertainment content through its iTunes Store. While initially offering only music, the store has grown to include videos, television shows, films, and audio books. Apple’s products and services include: * A range of personal computing products including desktop and portable computers. The Company’s desktop computers such as iMac ®, Mac ® Pro and Mac ® mini. Its portable computers include MacBook ®, MacBook ® Pro and MacBook Air ®. * iPod: The iPod was launched as a line of portable digital music players in 2001, a portable entertainment device capable of storing photos and playing video. iPhone: Released in June 2007, the iPhone marked Apple’s entry into the rapidly growing Smartphone market. * In January 2010, introduced iPad, a multi-purpose mobile device for browsing the web, reading and sending email, viewing photos, watching videos†¦ etc * iTunes Store: in early 2001, iTunes is a digital media player application used to manage audio and video files. * Apple TV: Launched in 2007, the App le TV is a digital media receiver designed to play content from an Internet media service or any computer running iTunes. AppleCare ® provides a range of support options for the Company’s customers, include assistance that is built into software products, printed and electronic product manuals, online support including comprehensive product information as well as technical aid, and the Apple Care Protection Plan (â€Å"APP†). * The Company offers a range of software products for consumers and creative customers, including the Company’s proprietary Mac OS X and iOS operating system software. Ipad2 Imac Iphone4 Macbook Pro 2. Market review The Company manages its business primarily on a geographic basis. Operating segments consist of the Americas, Europe, Japan, Asia-Pacific. In September 25, 2010, the Company had opened a total of 317 retail stores, including 233 stores in the U. S. A and 84 stores all over the world, approximately 44% of the Company’s total net sales in 2010 inside the USA. Also, the Company had nearly 46,600 full-time equivalent employees and 2,800 full-time equivalent temporary employees and contractors. It has worldwide annual net sales of $65. 225 billion in 2010. (Inc, 2011) Net sales and Gross margin of Apple Inc in 2008-2009-2010 ($ million) Net sales/ Revenue : during 2010 increased $22. 3 billion, or 52% compared with 2009. Overall, total net sales of Apple increases rapidly, specially in 2010. (Inc, 2011) Expenditure: $1. 8 billion, $1. 3 billion and $1. 1 billion in 2010, 2009 and 2008 to invest development of new innovative products, such as iPhone, iPod, iPad and Macbook. (Inc, 2011) Investment of Apple in 2008-2009-2010( percentage %) * PEST Analysis * Politics Different countries have different policies which some way restrict or give the company chances. The company has to act in accordance with the environment regulations such as environment safe disposal or recycling. Triad , NAFTA and other regions open doors to trade ,otherwise Latin America, Asia offer massive potential. Unstable politics caused terrorism activities are directly impacting the overall business of the company. * Social The growing of computer and internet usage all over the world which are opportunities to develop computer industry. Education issue is put first for new generation which is key element for business of the company. User becomes more knowledgeable and skilled about computer. Economic Impacting from economic crisis leading to low consumers spending, however some signs of improvement appears by increasing of spending and investment of consumers. Currency exchange rate fluctuations and international trade regulations (tariffs and antidumping penalties) may affect products sales. * Technology Advanced in technology quickly and consumers appreciate more ; more advances in their systems. The traditional desktop might become outdated by the entrance of new revolutionary products. Increasing demands for new technology in schools and professionals. * SWOT Analysis * Competitors SWOT and PEST analysis above showed overview criticism about Apple. The company has a good performance, however it also encounters aggressive competitors in all segments of its business. The markets for the Company’s products and services are highly competitive. Because the segments in which the Company competes are characterized by rapid technological advances, including personal computers with its Mac computers; mobile communications and media devices with its iPhone, iPad and iPod product families, and distribution of third-party digital content and applications with its online iTunes Store. For instance : * Personal computers segment: According to Fortune magazine, HP is ranked 2nd in list of World’s most admired companies with score 7. 74 , HP’s revenue is $126 billion in 2010. (Magazine, 2011) (HP, 2011) * Mobile communications segment: HTC- The world’s largest maker of handset using Microsoft Corp. and Google Inc. operating systems. Its products use Google’s Android platform and   Windows Phone 7 software of  Microsoft. Revenue rose to NT$76 billion in third quarter 2010. Businessweek, 2011) * Software segment: Android, the free operating system developed by Google, accounted for a 32 percent share of the U. S. market for Smartphone bought in the past six months of 2010 according to August data from Nielsen Co. * Current and future trends Using Smartphone is increasing today( increased to 29 % in 2010, USA) (Roger Entner, 2011). A growing proportion of younger consumers opt to use their mobile contracts for all telecoms services. The f ocus of mobile industry will be on † platforms†, include operating systems ( iOS of Apple , Android of Google, and Microsoft’s Window 7) . The combination of affordable data plan and increasing Smartphone usage would get more people online. Consumers are ready to spend more for their extra functionality, effective and fashionable products. Touch, eye, voice and possibly even brain controllers will be commonplace. It also is future trend for personal computers and portable music players. Literature review As mentioned above , Apple’s success base on key point Steve Job- a brilliant CEO. Before analyzing influence of Steve Jobs on Apple and relate it with leadership theories, it is necessary to define leadership and its theories. Definition : Leadership is an interaction between two or members of a group that often involves structuring of the situation and the perceptions, expectation of members. Leaders are agent of change-person whose acts affect other people more than other people’s act affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member modifies the motivation or competencies of others in the group. In fact, some people are able to lead naturally while others, leadership skills are built up through hard work and practice. According to Stogdill’s studies, there are 5 elements which modify effective leader traits : Capacity, Achievement, Responsibility, Participation, Status. (Bloisi et al. , 2007) In addition, 4 leader decision styles were classified include : Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire, Human relation. (Bloisi et al. , 2007) Although, leader’s success also depends on how they interact with various circumstances that influence the tasks to be undertaken. A range of researches was pointed out, however some popular theories have known( contingency theories). Firstly, The Fiedler contingency model-matching leader style and situational favorableness factors. It includes (Bloisi et al. , 2007) Task structure – the degree to which the duty are formalised and planned; Position power – the degree of influence a leader has over activities such as recruitment, authority, promotion and increasing salary; Leader-member relations – the degree of confidence, trust and respect inferiors have for the leader . Secondly, Hersey and Blanchard’s (1996) situational leadership theory – matching leader behaviours to followers’ needs. Based on combinations of the leader’s task and relationship behaviours as moderated by the job maturity of followers. (Bloisi et al. , 2007). It includes: Task behaviours – organising and defining roles, structure, channel of communication; Relationship behaviours – relationship with inferiors by opening channel of communication and supporting. Thirdly, Path-goal theory ( House and Mitchell, 1974) : a leader should clarify goals, show acceptable paths for attaining goals, make the path easier to travel, and reward satisfactory performance. (Bloisi et al. , 2007). It includes: Directive leadership (highly task orientated)- provide guidance and how indentified performance standards and time schedules as well as policies; Achievement-orientated leadership (high task and relationship orientated) – challenge purpose is built up, seeks performance upgrading ; Participative leadership ( moderately task and highly relationship orientated ) – consulting with and soliciting the ideas of others in decision-making; Supportive leadership (highly relationship orientated) -concern for the needs and purposes of others and strives to make the work conditions satisfying and equitable. Additionally, there are 2 styles among several leadership styles which modify model of leaders. Firstly, Transactional leadership – using bureaucratic authority and incentives to motivate, focusing on rewards according to Bass theory. Secondly, Charismatic leadership – † heroic † leadership ; the ability to energize interiors through the use of symbols, visionary, stories and rhetoric to achieve at extraordinary levels, typically having a vision and a reason for the future , advanced by Weber (1947). Such information have demonstrated some traits and processes of leadership in an organisation. In fact , they are also traits which fit in Apple case. Its success story began in 1976, when Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniaks launched their own business, the Apple Computer Company, in Jobs’ family garage. At that time, he was 21, then by the age of 25 , Jobs obsessed $165 million . The increase of Apple’s success quickly which put the first landmark in his line of business. (Campbell, 2011) In 1985, he got out of the way of Apple when John Sculley , who came from Pepsi-Cola, had joined. Four years later, Jobs came back with another company, NextStep which achieved far away from the success of Apple but it recalled people that he would continued in his way. Later, he secondly started with his participation in Pixar- the animation company he purchased from the Star Wars director, George Lucas. The first success of Pixar is movie Toy Story which lead to its position as one of the key player in Hollywood, then launching movie Finding Nemo. Its success made Jobs a billionaire and prepared for his coming back Apple in 1997. Within one year , the ailing company was once more making huge profits. However, his journey didn’t stop at that point. Since the combination of high-speed Internet and the music industry has opened a new segment for getting profit by downloading music . Jobs believe that iTunes is the answer. Additionally, Ipad2 is leader in digital book and tablet segment now. (Campbell, 2011) Steve Jobs is really an effective leader, an important person in development of Apple. In many way , his traits fit in charismatic leadership. Firstly, an ideology is showed clearly, often using labels and slogans, He offered a vivid and positive image of the future. For instance, he used the slogan as well as the iconic logo of the Mac team:† Pirates! Not the Navy â€Å"to build up Mac team( a group specializes design new products) (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 38). Being pirate, employees should think differently and act as revolution. His goal and passion are perfect products. He concerned about every details of products carefully until it was launched. This is an ideological image which he and his team follow, becomes a motivation in the whole company. By articulating an ideological vision and recruiting a number of talents who share the values of the vision, he develops the company. Secondly, he showed clear structure to reach his goal as well as increases positive values and suggest linkages between expected behaviors from interiors with his vision of the future. For example, he formed the Mac group would never raise more than a hundred people because it was easy to fall into the danger of free flowing of ideas, barriers of communication among employees. He had a plan to guarantee everyone has the same wavelength and the same direction, setting a standard of doing each task for each staff (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 38). He ordered the team to create a whole new prototype of the computer using different chip, the Motorola 68000, which featured a lager memory. Another case, he forced people do his direction by calling meetings, setting new paths, adding new people into Mac team to move the cursor with some kind of control device . It led to moving the cursors with the mouse , clicking o make collection, dragging a file or icon (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 15). That was the fundamentals of the way we use computers today. Also, he was always finding for something specific from each group to link the quality he wanted. He brought out the creative talent in several people and guided them to work in harmony as well as encouraged open discussion. These characters also fit with Task behaviors of Hersey and Blanchard theory and Task structure of Fielder theory. Because both theories are quite similar , they show clear structure and aim to lead employees follow. H In fact, effective leader does not rely on one leadership style to manage company. Transaction leadership style also contain in this case. He has focused on achieving the tasks at hand. Jobs has got things done by making, and fulfilling, promises of recognition, and advancement for employees who have performed well. By contrast, employees who do not do good work are penalized. This promise and reward for good performance, or threat and discipline for poor performance. For example, he set up product retreats into the actual work agenda, opening them every three months for the whole growing Mac team. Every member was expected to be present. One by one, each team manager for hard ware, soft ware, marketing, sales, finance, PR would present a brief status report and time line , explaining where they were in term of agenda. If their team was falling behind , they would be criticized and given some suggestions for how they could overcome (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 43). Everybody was free to give suggestions. Besides, he decided that the signatures of the engineering team members would be put on the inside of the case of the first Mac. It’s also a gift or recognition from him to interiors. Another case, achievement- oriented leadership consist with his traits, he was always discovering imperfections in everything , from the design to the marketing and packaging , to how the product would be promoted and sold. He always asked: † At the first grade level† (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 21) . In a story, he had decided early on that the cell phone being developed at Apple would have only a single button but his engineers couldn’t carry out , then, he kept demanding in effect : † The phone will have a single button. Figure it out† (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 23). By high demanding, we have iPhone 4 with only a single button today. In addition, he is autocratic decision style because he always gave duty for others and decided quickly. However, he is a relation behaviors and supportive leader. He focused on the slogan: † We are all in this together† by bringing people from different aspects to meet each others in celebrations and to make a satisfaction work place such as allowing to work free of usual restrictions (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 40). Apple would become known as a company that celebrated just about everything: meeting goal, sales growth, new product introduction, new key people. In 1981, Bandley Drive building , a part of the center was a large atrium (Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011, p. 50). It had a piano, video games huge fridge stocked with bottles of fruit juice . It was quickly became a place for the employees to meet and hang out. Finally, his case consist with leader member relations theory. Because of all of his passion and actions , followers have a strong respect and trust to him. Talents would be attracted by talents, that is explanation for Why Apple attracted many genius engineers and developed nowadays. At last but not least, that is the innovation of Steve Jobs in the whole business context. Technologies which he developed and advanced in NextStep and Pixar were applied on Apple Inc. That is really a basic for Apple’s success . He always plays an important role in making right decision as the statement about leader and manager : Leader do the right thing , manager do the thing right. (Bloisi et al. , 2007) Conclusions Steve Jobs is criticized as an effective leader in the world. His famous and the well known of Apple remain together and will keep an important position in world trade. He is a part of success of Apple Inc and a leader in significant decision of development of his company. Understanding Apple Inc case and its market as well as an important leader- Steve Jobs will make us be aware of some traits of leadership in many theories deeply. His leadership style are : Task behaviors of Hersey and Blanchard theory and Task structure of Fielder theory, Charismatic leadership and Transaction leadership as well as Relation behaviors and Supportive leader. So that, it is realization that an successful leader always exists different leadership styles. Leaders always change their leadership style flexibility which is suitable for each task and each circumstance. Recommendations A part of the success of Apple based on Steve Jobs but it is dangerous if lack of this key leader. Besides, Job also shows that he is impatient person. So, it is considered seriously that Apple should give structure and motivation for employees as well as the whole company clearly and make it become tradition. Also, it is necessary to improve workplace such as improving workplace conditions in China and invest more in charity segment as Microsoft. It is useful to promote Apple’s image. References Bloisi, W. , W. Cook, C. ; L. Hunsaker, P. , 2007. Leadership. In K. Reade, ed. Management and Organisational Behaviour. 2nd ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education. pp. 652- 672. Businessweek, B. , 2011. Boomberg. [Online] Available at: http://www. businessweek. com/news/2010-10-06/htc-posts-record-revenue-profit-on-android-phones. html [Accessed 4 May 2011]. Campbell, D. , 2011. Guardian. [Online] Available at: http://arts. uardian. co. uk/features/story/0,11710,1241745,00. html [Accessed 4 May 2011]. Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011. In The Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership for a New Generation. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 38. Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011. In The Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership for a New Generation. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 21. Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011. In T he Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership for a New Generation. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 23. Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011. In The Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership for a New Generation. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 40. Elliot, Jay; L. Simon,William, 2011. In The Steve Jobs Way: iLeadership for a New Generation. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 50. HP, 2011. HP Coporate information. [Online] Available at: http://www8. hp. com/us/en/hp-information/facts. html [Accessed 4 May 2011]. Inc, A. , 2011. Apple Inc. [Online] Available at: http://www. apple. com/investor/ [Accessed 4 May 2011]. Magazine, F. , 2011. Money. cnn. [Online] Available at: http://money. cnn. com/magazines/fortune/mostadmired/2010/industries/7. html [Accessed 4 May 2011]. Roger Entner, S. V. P. R. a. I. T. P. , 2011. nielsewire. [Online] Available at: How to cite Report of Influence Leadership on Apple Inc, Papers

Kindred Todd Case free essay sample

Some companies value lateral open exchange of information and problem-solving where as others might have a top-down approach for problem-solving. The OD consultant must work with varying environments to be effective based on the companies’ individual needs. The OD professional is often times challenged with how best to develop a plan based on differing sets of values from the companies’. Another challenge facing the OD professional is that of ethics. When entering into a situation, the consultant and company have different values, needs, skills, and attributes on how to accomplish the change needed. This can often times translate into role ambiguity or role conflict that is like being in limbo about who is responsible for which tasks. Ethical dilemmas begin to surface once this occurs. Whether it be misrepresentation, misuse of data, coercion, value and goal conflict, or technical ineptness, the OD professional falls into a trap. The innate need to want to help, the ego of the consultant, and the potential pressure from the consulting company directors, may all play a role in sometimes the consultant falling into an ethical dilemma. We will write a custom essay sample on Kindred Todd Case or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Kindred Todd case did not articulate the exact skills and attributes of both sides; company or the consultant. Their values may very much be different and thus could enter the two sides into role conflict or role ambiguity. In terms of the Kindred Todd case, there were two ethical violations in my opinion. The first ethical violation is misrepresentation. Misrepresentation occurs when one or both parties work under a false pretense that a certain solution will work for the given situation. In this particular case, the president of the consulting firm, Larry Stepchuck, articulated to Kindred Todd that the oil and gas company was in need of Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) and needed to deal with long-range planning issues. During her first meeting with the senior management team, Ms Todd was inundated with questions about CQI. The company was already working towards the technical aspects of the process and wanted to know exact timelines for results. They even went as far as to ask how to form teams to identify areas of improvement using CQI. When Ms Todd met with Mr Stepchuck afterwards, he stated that the company really doesn’t know what they want. He then stated that â€Å"CQI† was a buzzword that drove the companies’ desire to initiate such a process. This type of ethical dilemma often occurs in the entering and contracting stages of change. The entering stage is vital for an external consultant to begin building trust and relationships with the client. As Ms Todd begins to build trust, she must view the issue as a whole and not move forward with what she was told by Mr Stepchuck. The second ethical violation deals with technical ineptness. After meeting with the company, Ms Todd told Mr Stepchuck that she was not qualified to initiate a CQI change and that he should consider using a different consultant. Mr Stepchuck’s response was for Ms Todd to continue as the subject matter expert no matter the qualifications. The oil and gas company is under the impression that CQI will fix their problems and Ms Todd is the expert who will guide them through the process. It seems that a thorough diagnosis of the problem was not made. The decision to move forward with CQI was made by the president of the consulting firm and was based on a meeting for a few hours with the client. Given the difficulty of the situation, Ms Todd was able to take a step back and affirm the company’s questions as good ones. This demonstrated her understanding to make the team feel engaged, important, and vital to the process. She then retargeted the focus back to the importance of the long-range goals and strategies of the firm by listening to the history of the organization. She was able to gather data on the company by reviewing the financial reports, trends in the industry, and issues the company faces. Her goal now was to probe for further information on the history, feedback from the management team on the issues, and to actively listen. She displayed emotional intelligence by not letting her initial shock of being sold as a CQI expert take over her discussion with the client. She was able to calmly navigate through effectively. By actively listening to the senior management team, Ms Todd demonstrated interpersonal skills such that the president of the oil and gas company was impressed with her. An important aspect of the case was that Ms Todd learned of the team’s desire for implementation of CQI that she quickly identified, in her mind, that she was not an expert. As a consultant it is important to understand one’s abilities to diagnose and implement a planned change while removing bias in the diagnosis based on previous experiences. Where Ms Todd failed was to address that perhaps CQI was not the only solution. Overall, I believe Ms Todd handled the initial meeting appropriately with regards to listening to the senior management team’s needs and issues for the long-range goals and strategies. It is critical to accurately diagnose the change needed for the company. I feel that a single meeting cannot provide such a vital diagnosis. In addition to meeting with the senior management team, I would ask to meet with department heads within the organization to assess their belief in the company, stresses, and vision for long-range success. In my opinion, I would speak to as many individuals within the company as possible to gather as much information and data on the current situation and the desired future. What is also important is to understand the client has been sold CQI. There is an expectation from the client’s side that CQI will be implemented and a timeline of results will be initiated. My thought would be just that of Ms Todd’s in that I would inquire about the company’s history. I would also ask what previous steps have been taken to identify the change needed and how the company came to the conclusion of long-range goals being changed. Next, I would continue to work with the senior management team to identify the real change needed and work towards the appropriate diagnosis. By doing so, the level of dependency will be mitigated. Although the company feels strongly about CQI, it would be my responsibility to be transparent that there may be other avenues that may be better suited for the planned change based on the diagnosis. It is important to not minimize their desire for CQI even though they may not understand what it means or entails. The value of the OD practitioner is to identify the emotional and psychological desires and needs of the client, affirm the emotions, and develop a clear understanding of a team approach. The team approach of consultant and client will remove a high level of dependency as well. I believe it to be important to inform them that while CQI may be a solution, it is in our best interest to vet all options to make sure we are not leaving anything on the table that may affect long-range goals for the company. Much like with any change, it is vital to attain buy-in from the individuals participating in the change. With a top-down approach, the client must be willing to emulate the planned change throughout each interaction with members of the organization in the effort to build the desire to execute the change overall. In summary, management must become the planned change.